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在一些人看来,行星和星座与人的性格、命运有某种关联,甚至两个人出生时间相差几分钟就会不同。
在另一些人看来,占星与算命没有本质区别。
然而,现实是:越是在受过教育的学生和白领中,“星座学”就越流行。
这次天文和占星的观点碰撞,在科学史上不是第一次,也绝不会是最后一次。
天文学家朱进多次使用“瞎说”这个词,却并不能消除人们心头的疑问。
在过去几十年里,心理学、生理学、医学、地球科学的一系列新发现只是为人们提出了更多的可能性,这些发现也在暗示,仅靠天文学,是远远不足以证明或证伪占星学的。
在英文中,占星学与天文学有同样的词根astro。
天文学与占星学也可以结合得很好——天文学可以算出一个人出生时天空中的所有星座,以及太阳、月亮和行星的位置。
或者说,一个人的星盘。
而星盘是占星的起始。
占星学大约萌芽于公元前2500年。
它主张的核心有关人的灵魂,是天体与人格的联系——背景是希腊哲学连续两百年对宇宙和灵魂的追问。
按亚里士多德在《灵魂论》中的总结,人们对灵魂问题的探讨首先从灵魂的性质出发。
那时,人们认为人之所以为人,灵魂之所以为灵魂,是因为灵魂可以促成运动,并用自己的动带动躯体的动。
这是起动原理。
第二个原理则可称为感知原理。
哲学家认为,灵魂之所以能感知万物,是因为灵魂中有一些成分与自然元素是同类的。
占星师所相信的存在某种宇宙的统一体的观念,很大程度上来自柏拉图。
柏拉图在《蒂迈欧篇》中说:“天体是可见的,但灵魂则不可见。
灵魂内涵了理性与和谐。
它的工作方式就是默默无声地依着自己的运动,同样准确地作用于万物。
” 最容易想到的对占星学的质疑是:不同的人被分为12个星座,全球有70亿人,难道就有那么多人是相同的吗?在职业占星师看来,这个问题之所以被提出,是出自人们对占星学的误解。
“星座运势是‘新闻学’范畴,不是占星学的范畴。
”瑞雷说,“星座运势就像我们的娱乐新闻一样——八卦新闻跟占星学无关。
”严肃的占星学用到的是太阳、月亮和行星,并不仅仅是笼统地以星座来划分。
天文学上对占星学质疑最多的一点也与星座有关。
占星学中用到位于黄道上的12个星座,而天文学中有一个概念叫作“岁差”,即地球自转轴的周期性摆动。
由于岁差的存在,现在黄道上的星座已经不像几千年前那样是12个了,而是13个,多出来一个蛇夫座。
占星中仍在使用十二星座,这作何解释呢?“很多人误以为,占星学里的黄道跟天上真实的星座是相关的。
但实际上,占星学上的十二星座跟天上的星座没有关系。
占星学上的星座是从春分点和秋分点来衡量的。
”瑞雷说。
换句话说,在占星学中使用的是均分星座。
巴比伦人创造星座理论时,是将黄道大圆360°平均分成12份,每份30°,按相近的星座命名,这并不等同于天文学意义上的星座。
虽然分享了白羊、金牛等一系列名字,但占星学分析的是前者,而不是后者。
黄道12星座总是12个,不会更多。
占星学所表述的现象究竟是如支持者所认为的客观存在,还是如质疑者所认为的只是人们的错觉或想象?在这个问题上,1978年曾经有人做过一项开创性的研究。
它在占星学的争论中举足轻重,引出了此后几十组效仿或反对的后续研究。
这让占星学成为一个正式的学术问题。
这项实验的研究者是梅耶(J. Mayo)、怀特(O. White)和艾森克(H. J. Eysenck),三位英国的占星学家和心理学家。
他们用心理学量表测量12星座被试者的人格维度,比较他们之间得分的差别。
三人中的艾森克是20世纪最重要的心理学家之一,他发展出来的艾森克人格量表(EPQ)至今仍然是最广泛使用的人格量表之一。
在三名研究者看来,当时对星座的反对意见都缺少足够的证据,因而显得不够有说服力。
他们认为,占星理论有一些很明确的主张,在正规实验中,应当能够检验或反驳。
于是他们征集了917名成年男性和1407名成年女性,共2324名被试,进行了艾森克量表两个维度的测试。
在将测试结果按照12星座算出平均值后,他们发现:奇数星座比偶数星座在外向程度上的得分更高,这就是说,白羊、双子、狮子、天秤、射手和水瓶六个星座比金牛、巨蟹、处女、天蝎、摩羯和双鱼六个星座更外向,结果显著。
而在情绪性方面,水相星座整体上得分更高。
这个实验一经发表,便引起很多研究者关注,迅速出现几十个效仿实验,试图验证或驳斥它的结果。
然而,所有这些实验最终无法得到确定无疑的结论。
原因就在于它们回避不开所谓“自我归因”和“巴纳姆效应”。
自我归因是一种心理效应。
实验中的受试者可能在测试之前就已经被星座学说所沾染,测试的结果自然会接近星座学说的说法。
尤其是当整个社会都熟知了星座论断,并用它来描述自己,那么“真实的”情况就变得难以了解。
另一种效应,巴纳姆效应,是“人们通常会认为一段概括而模糊的人格描述非常适合自己”的现象。
这种现象也在专门的实验中得到了验证。
虽然一开始人们认为统计学研究方法的介入是一个验证或反驳占星理论的有力工具,然而,后面才慢慢发现事情没有那么简单。
这个课题也逐渐被心理学家搁置起来。
从实质上来...
1.如果你讲了一个故事,或是谈论了一个话题,你可让学生俩人(pair work)一组相互交谈.完了,你可抽问学生他们的合伙人说了什么." What did your partner say?"这不仅锻炼学生说英文的表达能力,也训练他们学会去聆听他人说话.2.Show and Tell让学生带些他们的小收藏,或是喜欢的东西来班上,给大家介绍.对自己熟悉的东西,学生会认真准备也愿意去说的.或是介绍自己家乡的特产.3.role play阅读完一个故事,可让学生扮演里面的角色.4.market research老师可出题目,让学生在班上对十人或是更多的同学做市场调查.5.weather report天气预报6.news report新闻预报7.史上今日Today in History8.开心一刻Humour and Jokes9.迷语猜猜---Brain Teaser10.星座运程---Horoscope11一问到地---odd question
Aristotle (384-322 BCE) Life and Works. . Logic. . Demonstration. . Four Causes. . Metaphysics. . Universals. . Knowledge. . Virtue. . Volition. . Friendship. . Politics. . Poetics Bibliography Internet Sources Born at Stagira in northern Greece, Aristotle was the most notable product of the educational program devised by Plato; he spent twenty years of his life studying at the Academy. When Plato died, Aristotle returned to his native Macedonia, where he is supposed to have participated in the education of Philip's son, Alexander (the Great). He came back to Athens with Alexander's approval in 335 and established his own school at the Lyceum, spending most of the rest of his life engaged there in research, teaching, and writing. His students acquired the name "peripatetics" from the master's habit of strolling about as he taught. Although the surviving works of Aristotle probably represent only a fragment of the whole, they include his investigations of an amazing range of subjects, from logic, philosophy, and ethics to physics, biology, psychology, politics, and rhetoric. Aristotle appears to have thought through his views as he wrote, returning to significant issues at different stages of his own development. The result is less a consistent system of thought than a complex record of Aristotle's thinking about many significant issues. The aim of Aristotle's logical treatises (known collectively as the Organon) was to develop a universal method of reasoning by means of which it would be possible to learn everything there is to know about reality. Thus, the Categories proposes a scheme for the description of particular things in terms of their properties, states, and activities. On Interpretation, Prior Analytics, and Posterior Analytics examine the nature of deductive inference, outlining the system of syllogistic reasoning from true propositions that later came to be known as categorical logic. Though not strictly one of the logical works, the Physics contributes to the universal method by distinguishing among the four causes which may be used to explain everything, with special concern for why things are the way they are and the apparent role of chance in the operation of the world. In other treatises, Aristotle applied this method, with its characteristic emphasis on teleological explanation, to astronomical and biological explorations of the natural world In Metafusikh (Metaphysics) Aristotle tried to justify the entire enterprise by grounding it all in an abstract study of being qua being. Although Aristotle rejected the Platonic theory of forms, he defended his own vision of ultimate reality, including the eternal existence of substance. On The Soul uses the notion of a hylomorphic composite to provide a detailed account of the functions exhibited by living things—vegetable, animal, and human—and explains the use of sensation and reason to achieve genuine knowledge. That Aristotle was interested in more than a strictly scientific exploration of human nature is evident from the discussion of literary art (particularly tragedy) in Peri PoihtikhV (Poetics) and the methods of persuasion in the 'RhtoreiaV (Rhetoric). Aristotle made several efforts to explain how moral conduct contributes to the good life for human agents, including the Eqikh EudaimonhV (Eudemian Ethics) and the Magna Moralia, but the most complete surviving statement of his views on morality occurs in the Eqikh Nikomacoi (Nicomachean Ethics). There he considered the natural desire to achieve happiness, described the operation of human volition and moral deliberation, developed a theory of each virtue as the mean between vicious extremes, discussed the value of three kinds of friendship, and defended his conception of an ideal life of intellectual pursuit. But on Aristotle's view, the lives of individual human beings are invariably linked together in a social context. In the Peri PoliV (Politics) he speculated about the origins of the state, described and assessed the relative merits of various types of government, and listed the obligations of the individual citizen. He may also have been the author of a model PoliteiaV Aqhnawn (Constitution of Athens), in which the abstract notion of constitutional government is applied to the concrete life of a particular society.